Information+Seeking+Behavior

Information Seeking Behavior
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I. Introduction
The information seeking behavior of abused women is shaped by a complex web of factors, including (but not limited to) the woman's particular sociocultural and economic context, internal and external barriers to help seeking, success level of previous information seeking efforts, and, significantly, the stage of abuse.

II. The ELIS Model
Much of the work done in this area builds on foundational concepts first developed by Brenda Dervin (e.g. the knowledge gap, sense-making) and Bryce Allen (i.e. the person-in-situation model). In her article, "Information Seeking and Use by Battered Women", Jennifer E. Dunne develops an "expanded version of the person-in-situation model: a 'person-in-progressive-situations' model" to account for the changing information needs and behavior of women in abusive relationships. Dunne asserts that it is important to conceptualize the information seeking behavior of abused women as something that evolves and shifts with the progression of abuse. Although other research had been done on the help seeking behavior of abused women prior to Dunne's 2002 article, she was the first to develop a behavior model within the ELIS framework.

Dunne contends that, as abuse escalates, information seeking behavior intensifies. Information seeking begins when the woman (a) realizes that her situation is a problem and (b) senses a gap in her knowledge with regard to her situation. Early information seeking usually focuses on interpersonal resources as the woman looks primarily for emotional support. However, as her situation worsens and her partner becomes more violent (emotionally and/or physically), she will likely begin searching for more concrete, formal information and services. While her information seeking efforts may initially be influenced by the desire to change or help her partner, the intensification of abuse will likely lead her to search for information that will help her plan her escape. It is important here to note that the escape from an abusive relationship does not signal the end of information seeking, but rather a new stage in the process, one that is accompanied by new information needs. Dunne's model requires a commitment to the progressive nature of abused women's information seeking behavior (i.e. that information needs and behavior evolve in tandem with the individual's situation).

**i. The Learned Helplessness Controversy**
Some earlier research focused heavily on the psychological state of the victim and on women's //learned helplessness//, the belief being that women became more passive and were less likely to seek information as abuse progressed. This was seen by some as the primary barrier to help-seeking in abused women. In Edward Gondolf and Ellen Fisher's book, //Battered Women as Survivors,// the authors attempt to counteract this belief. By analyzing the results of 6,000 in-take and exit interviews with abused women in shelters, Gondolf and Fisher deduced that, rather than becoming more passive as abuse progressed, women's information seeking actually intensified, and that the women were actively searching for information that would help them escape the abusive relationship. Thus, Gondolf and Fisher concluded that materials that focused on the psychological state of the abused woman and improving her self-esteem were actually harmful, both because they implied that the woman was the source of the problem and because their prevalence made it more difficult for women to locate concrete information regarding safe houses and other services that would help them plan their escape.

One of the essential issues with the methodology of the Gondolf and Fisher study is that it relied on interviews with women whose information seeking had been (at least somewhat) successful: all the interviewees had escaped their abusers and found their way to shelters. Women who did not seek information, did not seek information effectively, or who were unable to plan and enact an escape for whatever reason were therefore invisible in the study results. In other words, //Battered Women as Survivors// may accurately depict the information seeking behavior of abused women who successfully escape their abuser, but it cannot fully account for women who do not. Therefore, it may still be the case that //learned helplessness// is a barrier to abused women's information seeking. That being said, the politics of discussing it can be problematic, particularly when the phenomenon is cited in service of victim blaming. Moreover, Gondolf and Fisher's point regarding the lack of utility and potentially harmful effects of psychologically-focused materials is well-taken; it is not necessary, in the end, to wholly discount the //learned helplessness// phenomenon in order to make a strong argument for a rhetorical shift in how we discuss/present the information seeking behavior of abused women as well as how we deliver information services to them. It may also be the case that we can only successfully produce evidence-based models of the information seeking behavior of abuse survivors, since large-scale studies of women who do not leave their relationships are significantly more difficult to undertake.

**ii. Personal, Responsive, and Situational Barriers**
There are a multitude of obstacles - both internal and external - that prevent women from seeking information while in abusive relationships. Dunne defines three categories of barrier: //personal//, //responsive//, and //situational//. The first, //personal//, refers generally to ignorance of available services or information seeking techniques. The second, //responsive//, involves the internal responses women have to the prospect of information seeking; these may include, guilt, shame, a sense of responsibility to the abuser, a fear of reprisal, or a disinclination to "burden" others with their problems. The third category, //situational//, refers to barriers generated by the woman's specific situation. These clearly vary from person to person. However, one of the more common situational barriers to help-seeking is isolation. Abusers isolate their victims in order to maintain control, which means a woman who is being abused is less likely to seek help from outside individuals and services and is often disinclined to discuss her situation with friends or family members.

**iii. Attitudes Towards Abuse and Implications for Information Delivery**
Roma Harris et al. found that, in their study of 105 women who had suffered through abusive relationships, "information and help seeking can be affected by societal attitudes toward what, until relatively recently, has been regarded as a private family matter." Both the fear of negative reactions and actual negative reactions to a woman's help-seeking efforts can prove to be a major barrier, as well as a disincentive to future information seeking. Empathetic, sensitive information delivery is therefore criticalt to the successful facilitation of abused women's information seeking activities.

**iv. Cultural Barriers and the Survivor-Centered Approach**
Various sociocultural differences affect the information seeking behavior of abused women. For instance, cultural variations in gender norms (i.e. women should behave such-and-such way) impact the sorts of barriers different women face. Holistically speaking, it makes sense to advocate for a survivor-centered approach to information behavior and services. In their paper, " Intimate Partner Survivors’ Help Seeking and Protection Efforts," Paula S. Nurius et al. "posit that survivors not only have different experiences of [intimate partner violence] but also have different vulnerabilities and needs related to these experiences of violence." Although Dunne's information seeking model and Gondolf and Fisher's study results are transferable to a certain extent, they ought not be understood as generalizable to all women who suffer through abuse. Differently situated individuals will inevitably have different experiences of and responses to abuse.

IV. Sources
This article is an early example of the theoretical work that examines information behavior of abuse survivors within the framework of the Everyday Life Information Seeking (ELIS) model. In addition to introducing an ELIS approach, the author defines three kinds of barriers – personal, responsive, and situational – that may inhibit information seeking. The goal of Dunne’s research is not necessarily to develop a universalized information-seeking model, but rather to describe a possible progression of information needs.
 * Dunne, J. E. (2002). Information seeking and use by battered women: a "person-in-progressive-situations" approach. //Library & Information Science Research//, //24//(4), 343-355. DOI: 10.1016/S0740-8188(02)00132-9 **

Through an analysis of 6,000 intake and exit interviews with shelter residents, this book counteracts the popular emphasis on treating abused women's "learned helplessness" through help-seeking materials. The authors posit that, as abuse escalates, women do not become more passive or submissive, but rather their information seeking behaviors intensify. Materials that focus on the psychological condition of the abused woman rather than on providing concrete information regarding escape planning thus do women a great disservice.
 * Gondolf, E. W., & Fisher, E. R. (1988). //Battered women as survivors: an alternative to treating learned helplessness.// Lexington, KY: Lexington Books.**

This article discusses the findings of a study of one hundred and five women who suffered abuse by their intimate partners. The women described their information and help-seeking experiences. Study results are evaluated with a focus on developing successful community coordination mechanisms that can overcome common barriers to information seeking among abuse survivors. While many studies of this sort rely on surveys women whose help seeking was at least somewhat successful because they had found their way to a shelter, this study is unique in that nearly half the respondents were still in an abusive relationship.
 * Harris, R., Stickney, J., Grasley, C., Hutchinson, G., Greaves, L., & Boyd, T. (2001). Searching for help and information: abused women speak out. //Library & Information Science Research, 23//(2), 123-141. DOI: 10.1016/S0740-8188(01)00066-4 **

The purpose of this article is to apply person-oriented methodology for a survivor-centered investigation of variations in help-seeking and protective actions among women in accordance with subgroup membership. The study utilizes empirical evidence as the foundation for service recommendations that correlate with the needs of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) survivors.
 * Nurius, P. S., Macy, R. J., Nwabuzor, I., & Holt, V. L. (2011). Intimate partner survivors’ help seeking and protection efforts: a person-oriented analysis. //Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26//(3), 539-566. DOI: 10.1177/0886260510363422 **